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what happens to the chloride gradient in CF

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Mammalian protein constitute in Homo sapiens

"CFTR" redirects here. For the Canadian radio station in Toronto, come across CFTR (AM).

CFTR
Protein CFTR PDB 1xmi.png CFTR.jpg
Available structures
PDB Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
Aliases CFTR, ABC35, ABCC7, CF, CFTR/MRP, MRP7, TNR-dJ760C5.i, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, CF transmembrane conductance regulator
External IDs OMIM: 602421 MGI: 88388 HomoloGene: 55465 GeneCards: CFTR
EC number 5.half-dozen.1.half dozen
Orthologs
Species Human Mouse
Entrez

1080

12638
Ensembl

ENSG00000001626

ENSMUSG00000041301
UniProt

P13569

P26361
RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_000492

NM_021050

RefSeq (poly peptide)

NP_000483

NP_066388

Location (UCSC) Chr 7: 117.29 – 117.72 Mb Chr 6: 18.17 – 18.32 Mb
PubMed search [3] [iv]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a membrane protein and chloride channel in vertebrates that is encoded by the CFTR gene.[5] [6]

The CFTR gene codes for an ABC transporter-class ion aqueduct protein that conducts chloride[seven] ions across epithelial cell membranes. Mutations of the CFTR gene affecting chloride ion channel function pb to dysregulation of epithelial fluid send in the lung, pancreas and other organs, resulting in cystic fibrosis. Complications include thickened mucus in the lungs with frequent respiratory infections, and pancreatic insufficiency giving rise to malnutrition and diabetes. These conditions lead to chronic inability and reduced life expectancy. In male patients, the progressive obstruction and destruction of the developing vas deferens (spermatic cord) and epididymis announced to event from abnormal intraluminal secretions,[8] causing congenital absence of the vas deferens and male infertility.

Gene [edit]

The location of the CFTR gene on chromosome 7

The factor that encodes the human CFTR protein is found on chromosome vii, on the long arm at position q31.2.[6] from base pair 116,907,253 to base pair 117,095,955. CFTR orthologs[9] occur in the jawed vertebrates.[10]

The CFTR cistron has been used in animals as a nuclear DNA phylogenetic marker.[nine] Big genomic sequences of this gene accept been used to explore the phylogeny of the major groups of mammals,[11] and confirmed the grouping of placental orders into four major clades: Xenarthra, Afrotheria, Laurasiatheria, and Euarchonta plus Glires.

Mutations [edit]

Near 1000 cystic fibrosis-causing mutations have been described.[12] The nigh common mutation, DeltaF508 (ΔF508) results from a deletion (Δ) of three nucleotides which results in a loss of the amino acrid phenylalanine (F) at the 508th position on the protein.[xiii] As a consequence, the poly peptide does not fold normally and is more quickly degraded. The vast majority of mutations are infrequent. The distribution and frequency of mutations varies among different populations which has implications for genetic screening and counseling.

Drug discovery for therapeutics to accost CF in all patients is complicated due to the large number of illness-causing mutations. Ideally, a library of cell lines and prison cell-based assays corresponding to all mutants is required to screen for broadly-active drug candidates. Prison cell applied science methods including fluorogenic oligonucleotide signaling probes may be used to detect and isolate clonal cell lines for each mutant.[xiv]

Mutations consist of replacements, duplications, deletions or shortenings in the CFTR factor. This may issue in proteins that may not function, piece of work less effectively, are more than speedily degraded, or are nowadays in inadequate numbers.[15]

It has been hypothesized that mutations in the CFTR factor may confer a selective advantage to heterozygous individuals. Cells expressing a mutant form of the CFTR protein are resistant to invasion by the Salmonella typhi bacterium, the agent of typhoid fever, and mice carrying a single copy of mutant CFTR are resistant to diarrhea acquired by cholera toxin.[16]

The virtually common mutations that cause cystic fibrosis and pancreatic insufficiency in humans are:[17]

Variant cDNA name (ordered 5' to iii') Variant poly peptide name Variant legacy name rsID # alleles in CFTR2 Allele frequency in CFTR2 % pancreatic insufficient Variant final determination (July 2020)
c.1521_1523delCTT p.Phe508del F508del rs113993960 99061 0.69744 98% CF-causing
c.1624G>T p.Gly542X G542X rs113993959 3610 0.02542 98% CF-causing
c.1652G>A p.Gly551Asp G551D rs75527207 2986 0.02102 96% CF-causing
c.3909C>Chiliad p.Asn1303Lys N1303K rs80034486 2246 0.01581 98% CF-causing
c.350G>A p.Arg117His R117H rs78655421 1854 0.01305 23% Varying clinical consequence
c.3846G>A p.Trp1282X W1282X rs77010898 1726 0.01215 99% CF-causing
c.489+1G>T No protein name 621+1G->T rs78756941 1323 0.00931 99% CF-causing
c.1657C>T p.Arg553X R553X rs74597325 1323 0.00931 97% CF-causing
c.1585-1G>A No poly peptide name 1717-1G->A rs76713772 1216 0.00856 97% CF-causing
c.3718-2477C>T No poly peptide proper name 3849+10kbC->T rs75039782 1158 0.00815 33% CF-causing
c.2657+5G>A No protein name 2789+5G->A rs80224560 1027 0.00723 43% CF-causing
c.1519_1521delATC p. Ile507del I507del rs121908745 651 0.00458 98% CF-causing
c.3484C>T p.Arg1162X R1162X rs74767530 651 0.00458 97% CF-causing
c.254G>A p.Gly85Glu G85E rs75961395 616 0.00434 85% CF-causing
c.3454G>C p.Asp1152His D1152H rs75541969 571 0.00402 24% Varying clinical consequence
c.2051_2052delAAinsG p. Lys684SerfsX38 2183AA->G rs121908799 542 0.00382 96% CF-causing
c.3528delC p. Lys1177SerfsX15 3659delC rs121908747 539 0.00379 99% CF-causing
c.1040G>C p.Arg347Pro R347P rs77932196 533 0.00375 68% CF-causing
c.1210−12T[5] No protein name 5T rs1805177 516 0.00363 28% Varying clinical consequence
c.2988+1G>A No protein name 3120+1G->A rs75096551 501 0.00353 98% CF-causing
c.1364C>A p.Ala455Glu A455E rs74551128 500 0.00352 34% CF-causing
c.3140-26A>G No protein name 3272-26A->Chiliad rs76151804 470 0.00331 29% CF-causing
c.1000C>T p.Arg334Trp R334W rs121909011 429 0.00302 40% CF-causing
c.1766+1G>A No protein proper name 1898+1G->A rs121908748 421 0.00296 99% CF-causing
c.54-5940_273+10250del21kb p.Ser18ArgfsX16 CFTRdele2,3 not found 417 0.00294 100% CF-causing
c.1679G>C p.Arg560Thr R560T rs80055610 343 0.00241 98% CF-causing
c.617T>G p. Leu206Trp L206W rs121908752 333 0.00234 20% CF-causing
c.2052dupA p.Gln685ThrfsX4 2184insA rs121908786 329 0.00232 85% CF-causing
c.262_263delTT p. Leu88IlefsX22 394delTT rs121908769 307 0.00216 97% CF-causing
c.178G>T p.Glu60X E60X rs77284892 296 0.00208 99% CF-causing
c.1477C>T p.Gln493X Q493X rs77101217 292 0.00206 98% CF-causing
c.579+1G>T No protein proper noun 711+1G->T rs77188391 274 0.00193 98% CF-causing
c.2052delA p. Lys684AsnfsX38 2184delA rs121908746 255 0.00180 98% CF-causing
c.200C>T p.Pro67Leu P67L rs368505753 239 0.00168 34% CF-causing
c.3302T>A p.Met1101Lys M1101K rs36210737 238 0.00168 69% CF-causing
c.1408A>G p.Met470Val M470V rs213950 235 0.00165 46% Non CF-causing
c.3276C>A or c.3276C>K p.Tyr1092X Y1092X rs121908761 225 0.00158 98% CF-causing
c.3196C>T p.Arg1066Cys R1066C rs78194216 220 0.00155 98% CF-causing
c.1021_1022dupTC p.Phe342HisfsX28 1154insTC rs387906360 214 0.00151 99% CF-causing
c.3773dupT p. Leu1258PhefsX7 3905insT rs121908789 210 0.00148 97% CF-causing
c.1646G>A p.Ser549Asn S549N rs121908755 203 0.00143 84% CF-causing
c.1040G>A p.Arg347His R347H rs77932196 199 0.00140 24% CF-causing
c.948delT p.Phe316LeufsX12 1078delT rs121908744 184 0.00130 99% CF-causing
c.1210-33_1210-6GT[12]T[4] No protein proper noun 5T;TG12 not plant 182 0.00128 fourteen% Varying clinical consequence
c.3472C>T p.Arg1158X R1158X rs79850223 179 0.00126 99% CF-causing
c.2834C>T p.Ser945Leu S945L rs397508442 167 0.00118 40% CF-causing
c.1558G>T p. Val520Phe V520F rs77646904 156 0.00110 98% CF-causing
c.443T>C p. Ile148Thr I148T rs35516286 148 0.00104 88% Not CF-causing
c.349C>T p.Arg117Cys R117C rs77834169 146 0.00103 24% CF-causing

DeltaF508 [edit]

DeltaF508 (ΔF508), full proper noun CFTRΔF508 or F508del-CFTR (rs113993960), is a specific mutation within the CFTR factor involving a deletion of 3 nucleotides spanning positions 507 and 508 of the CFTR gene on chromosome 7, which ultimately results in the loss of a single codon for the amino acid phenylalanine (F). A person with the CFTRΔF508 mutation will produce an abnormal CFTR poly peptide that lacks this phenylalanine residue and which cannot fold properly. This poly peptide does non escape the endoplasmic reticulum for further processing. Having two copies of this mutation (one inherited from each parent) is by far the well-nigh common cause of cystic fibrosis (CF), responsible for near two-thirds of mutations worldwide.[18]

Effects [edit]

The CFTR protein is largely expressed in cells of the pancreas, intestinal and respiratory epithelia, and all exocrine glands. When properly folded, it is shuttled to the prison cell membrane, where it becomes a transmembrane poly peptide responsible for opening channels which release chloride ions out of cells; it also simultaneously inhibits the uptake of sodium ions past another aqueduct poly peptide. Both of these functions help to maintain an ion slope that causes osmosis to draw h2o out of the cells.[19] The ΔF508 mutation leads to the misfolding of CFTR and its eventual degradation in the ER. In organisms with 2 complements of the mutation, the protein is entirely absent from the prison cell membrane, and these critical ion ship functions are not performed.[20]

Having a homozygous pair of genes with the ΔF508 mutation prevents the CFTR protein from assuming its normal position in the jail cell membrane. This causes increased h2o retention in cells, respective dehydration of the extracellular space, and an associated cascade of effects on various parts of the body. These effects include: thicker mucous membranes in the epithelia of afflicted organs; obstruction of narrow respiratory airways as a issue of thicker mucous and inhibition of the free movement of mucocilia; congenital absenteeism of the vas deferens due to increased fungus thickness during fetal evolution; pancreatic insufficiency due to blockage of the pancreatic duct with mucus; and increased risk of respiratory infection due to build-up of thick, food-rich mucus where bacteria thrive. These are the symptoms of cystic fibrosis, a genetic disorder; however, ΔF508 is not the only mutation that causes this disorder.

Beingness a heterozygous carrier (having a single copy of ΔF508) results in decreased water loss during diarrhea because malfunctioning or absent CFTR proteins cannot maintain stable ion gradients across cell membranes. Typically in that location is a build-up of both Cl− and Na+ ions within affected cells, creating a hypotonic solution outside the cells and causing water to diffuse into the cells by osmosis. Several studies indicate that heterozygous carriers are at increased risk for various symptoms. For case, it has been shown that heterozygosity for cystic fibrosis is associated with increased airway reactivity, and heterozygotes may be at risk for poor pulmonary function. Heterozygotes with wheeze have been shown to be at college gamble for poor pulmonary role or evolution and progression of chronic obstructive lung illness. Ane gene for cystic fibrosis is sufficient to produce balmy lung abnormalities even in the absence of infection.[21]

Mechanism [edit]

The CFTR gene is located on the long arm of chromosome seven, at position q31.ii, and ultimately codes for a sequence of 1,480 amino acids. Normally, the three DNA base pairs A-T-C (paired with T-A-G on the opposite strand) at the gene'southward 507th position form the template for the mRNA codon A-U-C for isoleucine, while the three DNA base pairs T-T-T (paired with A-A-A) at the next 508th position course the template for the codon U-U-U for phenylalanine.[22] The ΔF508 mutation is a deletion of the C-G pair from position 507 along with the get-go ii T-A pairs from position 508, leaving the Dna sequence A-T-T (paired with T-A-A) at position 507, which is transcribed into the mRNA codon A-U-U. Since A-U-U too codes for isoleucine, position 507'due south amino acrid does non alter, and the mutation's net effect is equivalent to a deletion ("Δ") of the sequence resulting in the codon for phenylalanine at position 508.[23]

Prevalence [edit]

ΔF508 is present on at least one copy of chromosome 7 in approximately one in 30 Caucasians. Presence of the mutation on both copies causes the autosomal recessive disease cystic fibrosis. Scientists accept estimated that the original mutation occurred over 52,000 years ago in Northern Europe. The young allele historic period may be a consequence of past selection. One hypothesis as to why the otherwise detrimental mutation has been maintained past natural selection is that a single copy may present a positive upshot past reducing h2o loss during cholera, though the introduction of pathogenic Vibrio cholerae into Europe did not occur until the late 18th century.[24] Another theory posits that CF carriers (heterozygotes for ΔF508) are more resistant to typhoid fever, since CFTR has been shown to act as a receptor for Salmonella typhi bacteria to enter abdominal epithelial cells.[25]

Cystic fibrosis ΔF508 heterozygotes may be overrepresented among individuals with asthma and may have poorer lung office than non-carriers.[26] [27] Carriers of a single CF mutation have a higher prevalence of chronic rhinosinusitis than the general population.[28] Approximately 50% of cystic fibrosis cases in Europe are due to homozygous ΔF508 mutations (this varies widely by region),[29] while the allele frequency of ΔF508 is well-nigh 70%.[xxx] The remaining cases are caused by over 1,500 other mutations, including R117H, 1717-1G>A, and 2789+56G>A. These mutations, when combined with each other or even a unmarried copy of ΔF508, may cause CF symptoms. The genotype is non strongly correlated with severity of the CF, though specific symptoms have been linked to sure mutations.

Structure [edit]

The Overall Structure of Man CFTR in the Dephosphorylated, ATP-Free Conformation. Domains are labeled. Made from PDB 5UAK [1]

The CFTR cistron is approximately 189 kb in length, with 27 exons and 26 introns.[31] CFTR is a glycoprotein with 1480 amino acids. The protein consists of 7 domains. There are 2 transmembrane domains, each with vi spans of alpha helices. These are each continued to a nucleotide binding domain (NBD) in the cytoplasm. The get-go NBD is connected to the second transmembrane domain by a regulatory "R" domain that is a unique feature of CFTR, non nowadays in other ABC transporters. The ion channel only opens when its R-domain has been phosphorylated by PKA and ATP is bound at the NBDs.[32] The amino-terminus is part of the lasso motif which anchors into the cell membrane.[33] The carboxyl terminal of the poly peptide is anchored to the cytoskeleton by a PDZ-interacting domain.[34] The construction shown (PDB# 1XMI) shows a homopentameric assembly of mutated NBD1, the showtime nucleotide binding domain (NBD1) of the transporter.

Location and function [edit]

The CFTR protein is a channel protein that controls the flow of H2O and Cl− ions in and out of cells inside the lungs. When the CFTR poly peptide is working correctly, as shown in Panel 1, ions freely flow in and out of the cells. However, when the CFTR poly peptide is malfunctioning every bit in Panel two, these ions cannot catamenia out of the cell due to blocked CFTR channels. This occurs in cystic fibrosis, characterized by the buildup of thick mucus in the lungs.

CFTR functions as a phosphorylation and ATP-gated anion channel, increasing the conductance for sure anions (due east.g. Cl−) to menstruation downward their electrochemical gradient. ATP-driven conformational changes in CFTR open and close a gate to allow transmembrane flow of anions downwards their electrochemical slope.[5] This in contrast to other ABC proteins, in which ATP-driven conformational changes fuel uphill substrate ship across cellular membranes. Essentially, CFTR is an ion channel that evolved as a 'broken' ABC transporter that leaks when in open conformation.

CFTRs have ii transmembrane domains, each linked to a nucleotide-bounden domain. CFTR also contains another domain called the regulatory domain. Other members of the ABC transporter superfamily are involved in the uptake of nutrients in prokaryotes, or in the export of a variety of substrates in eukaryotes. ABC transporters accept evolved to transduce the gratis energy of ATP hydrolysis to the uphill movement of substrates beyond the cell membrane. They have ii main conformations, i where the cargo binding site is facing the cytosol or inwards facing (ATP free), and one where it is outward facing (ATP bound). ATP binds to each nucleotide binding domain, which results in the subsequent NBD dimerization, leading to the rearrangement of the transmembrane helices. This changes the accessibility of the cargo binding site from an inward facing position to an outward facing ane. ATP binding, and the hydrolysis that follows, drives the culling exposure of the cargo binding site, ensuring a unidirectional transport of cargo confronting an electrochemical gradient. In CFTR, alternating between an inwards-facing conformation to an outward-facing i results in channel gating. In item, NBD dimerization (favoured by ATP binding) is coupled to transition to an outward-facing conformation in which an open transmembrane pathway for anions is formed. Subsequent hydrolysis (at the approved agile site, site 2, including Walker motifs of NBD2) destabilizes the NBD dimer and favours return to the inward-facing conformation, in which the anion permeation pathway is airtight off.[five]

The CFTR is found in the epithelial cells of many organs including the lung, liver, pancreas, digestive tract, and the female person[35] and male reproductive tracts.[36] [37]

In the airways of the lung, CFTR is near highly expressed by rare specialized cells called pulmonary ionocytes.[38] [39] [40] In the pare CFTR is strongly expressed in the sebaceous and eccrine sweat glands.[41] In the eccrine glands, CFTR is located on the apical membrane of the epithelial cells that make up the duct of these sweat glands.[41]

Ordinarily, the protein allows motility of chloride and thiocyanate[42] ions (with a negative accuse) out of an epithelial cell into the Airway Surface Liquid and mucus. Positively charged sodium ions follow passively, increasing the total electrolyte concentration in the mucus, resulting in the movement of water out of the cell via osmosis.

In epithelial cells with motile cilia lining the bronchus and the oviduct, CFTR is located on the apical cell membrane but not on cilia.[35] In dissimilarity, ENaC (Epithelial sodium channel) is located along the unabridged length of the cilia.[35]

In sweat glands, defective CFTR results in reduced transport of sodium chloride and sodium thiocyanate[43] in the reabsorptive duct and therefore saltier sweat. This is the footing of a clinically important sweat examination for cystic fibrosis oft used diagnostically with genetic screening.[44]

Interactions [edit]

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator has been shown to interact with:

  • DNAJC5,[45]
  • GOPC,[46] [47]
  • PDZK1,[47] [48]
  • PRKCE,[49]
  • SLC4A8,[fifty]
  • SNAP23,[51]
  • SLC9A3R1,[34] [50] [52] [53] [54] [55]
  • SLC9A3R2,[56] and
  • STX1A,[51] [57]

It is inhibited by the anti-diarrhoea drug crofelemer.

[edit]

  • Congenital bilateral absence of vas deferens: Males with congenital bilateral absenteeism of the vas deferens most frequently have a mild mutation (a alter that allows partial function of the gene) in i copy of the CFTR gene and a cystic fibrosis-causing mutation in the other copy of CFTR.
  • Cystic fibrosis: More 1,800 mutations in the CFTR gene take been found[58] merely the bulk of these take not been associated with cystic fibrosis.[59] Most of these mutations either substitute i amino acid (a building block of proteins) for some other amino acid in the CFTR protein or delete a pocket-size amount of Deoxyribonucleic acid in the CFTR cistron. The virtually common mutation, chosen ΔF508, is a deletion (Δ) of one amino acrid (phenylalanine) at position 508 in the CFTR protein. This altered protein never reaches the cell membrane because it is degraded shortly subsequently it is fabricated. All affliction-causing mutations in the CFTR gene prevent the aqueduct from performance properly, leading to a blockage of the motion of table salt and h2o into and out of cells. As a result of this blockage, cells that line the passageways of the lungs, pancreas, and other organs produce abnormally thick, glutinous mucus. This mucus obstructs the airways and glands, causing the characteristic signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis. In addition, only thin fungus can be removed past cilia; thick mucus cannot, and so it traps bacteria that give rise to chronic infections.
  • Cholera: ADP-ribosylation caused by cholera toxin results in increased production of cyclic AMP which in plough opens the CFTR channel which leads to oversecretion of Cl−. Na+ and H2O follow Cl− into the small intestine, resulting in dehydration and loss of electrolytes.[lx]

Drug target [edit]

CFTR has been a drug target in efforts to find treatments for related conditions. Ivacaftor (merchandise proper noun Kalydeco, adult equally VX-770) is a drug approved by the FDA in 2012 for people with cystic fibrosis who accept specific CFTR mutations.[61] [62] Ivacaftor was adult by Vertex Pharmaceuticals in conjunction with the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation and is the starting time drug that treats the underlying crusade rather than the symptoms of the disease.[63] Chosen "the virtually important new drug of 2012",[64] and "a wonder drug"[65] information technology is one of the most expensive drugs, costing over U.s.a.$300,000 per twelvemonth, which has led to criticism of Vertex for the high price.

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Kulczycki LL, Kostuch M, Bellanti JA (January 2003). "A clinical perspective of cystic fibrosis and new genetic findings: relationship of CFTR mutations to genotype-phenotype manifestations". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Function A. 116A (3): 262–seven. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.10886. PMID 12503104. S2CID 9245855.
  • Vankeerberghen A, Cuppens H, Cassiman JJ (March 2002). "The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator: an intriguing protein with pleiotropic functions". Journal of Cystic Fibrosis. 1 (1): thirteen–29. doi:10.1016/S1569-1993(01)00003-0. PMID 15463806.
  • Tsui LC (1992). "Mutations and sequence variations detected in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene: a report from the Cystic Fibrosis Genetic Analysis Consortium". Human being Mutation. 1 (3): 197–203. doi:x.1002/humu.1380010304. PMID 1284534. S2CID 35904538.
  • McIntosh I, Cutting GR (July 1992). "Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator and the etiology and pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis". FASEB Journal. 6 (10): 2775–82. doi:10.1096/fasebj.6.x.1378801. PMID 1378801. S2CID 24932803.
  • Drumm ML, Collins FS (1993). "Molecular biology of cystic fibrosis". Molecular Genetic Medicine. 3: 33–68. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-462003-2.50006-7. ISBN9780124620032. PMID 7693108.
  • Kerem B, Kerem E (1996). "The molecular footing for disease variability in cystic fibrosis". European Journal of Human Genetics. 4 (2): 65–73. doi:ten.1159/000472174. PMID 8744024. S2CID 41476164.
  • Devidas S, Guggino WB (Oct 1997). "CFTR: domains, structure, and function". Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes. 29 (5): 443–51. doi:10.1023/A:1022430906284. PMID 9511929. S2CID 6000695.
  • Nagel M (December 1999). "Differential function of the two nucleotide binding domains on cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes. 1461 (2): 263–74. doi:10.1016/S0005-2736(99)00162-five. PMID 10581360.
  • Boyle MP (2000). "Unique presentations and chronic complications in adult cystic fibrosis: do they teach united states annihilation about CFTR?". Respiratory Research. 1 (3): 133–v. doi:ten.1186/rr23. PMC59552. PMID 11667976.
  • Greger R, Schreiber R, Mall K, Wissner A, Hopf A, Briel Grand, et al. (2001). "Cystic fibrosis and CFTR". Pflügers Archiv. 443 Suppl i: S3-7. doi:x.1007/s004240100635. PMID 11845294. S2CID 8057614.
  • Bradbury NA (2001). "campsite signaling cascades and CFTR: is there more to learn?". Pflügers Archiv. 443 Suppl 1: S85-91. doi:10.1007/s004240100651. PMID 11845310. S2CID 19373036.
  • Dahan D, Evagelidis A, Hanrahan JW, Hinkson DA, Jia Y, Luo J, Zhu T (2001). "Regulation of the CFTR channel by phosphorylation". Pflügers Archiv. 443 Suppl one: S92-six. doi:10.1007/s004240100652. PMID 11845311. S2CID 8144727.
  • Cohn JA, Noone PG, Jowell PS (September 2002). "Idiopathic pancreatitis related to CFTR: circuitous inheritance and identification of a modifier factor". Journal of Investigative Medicine. l (five): 247S–255S. doi:10.1136/jim-50-suppl5-01. PMID 12227654. S2CID 34017638.
  • Schwartz Yard (February 2003). "[Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene: mutations and clinical phenotypes]". Ugeskrift for Laeger. 165 (9): 912–half dozen. PMID 12661515.
  • Wong LJ, Alper OM, Wang BT, Lee MH, Lo SY (July 2003). "Two novel null mutations in a Taiwanese cystic fibrosis patient and a survey of East Asian CFTR mutations". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A. 120A (2): 296–eight. doi:x.1002/ajmg.a.20039. PMID 12833420. S2CID 41060230.
  • Cuppens H, Cassiman JJ (October 2004). "CFTR mutations and polymorphisms in male infertility". International Journal of Andrology. 27 (five): 251–6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2605.2004.00485.10. PMID 15379964.
  • Cohn JA, Mitchell RM, Jowell PS (March 2005). "The impact of cystic fibrosis and PSTI/SPINK1 gene mutations on susceptibility to chronic pancreatitis". Clinics in Laboratory Medicine. 25 (ane): 79–100. doi:10.1016/j.cll.2004.12.007. PMID 15749233.
  • Southern KW, Peckham D (2004). "Establishing a diagnosis of cystic fibrosis". Chronic Respiratory Illness. one (4): 205–10. doi:10.1191/1479972304cd044rs. PMID 16281647.
  • Kandula L, Whitcomb DC, Lowe ME (June 2006). "Genetic problems in pediatric pancreatitis". Electric current Gastroenterology Reports. eight (3): 248–53. doi:10.1007/s11894-006-0083-8. PMID 16764792. S2CID 23606613.
  • Marcet B, Boeynaems JM (December 2006). "Relationships between cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, extracellular nucleotides and cystic fibrosis". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 112 (3): 719–32. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2006.05.010. PMID 16828872.
  • Wilschanski 1000, Durie PR (August 2007). "Patterns of GI disease in adulthood associated with mutations in the CFTR gene". Gut. 56 (eight): 1153–63. doi:10.1136/gut.2004.062786. PMC1955522. PMID 17446304.

External links [edit]

  • GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on CFTR-Related Disorders - Cystic Fibrosis (CF, Mucoviscidosis) and Congenital Absence of the Vas Deferens (CAVD)
  • The Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Protein
  • The Human Gene Mutation Database - CFTR Records
  • Cystic Fibrosis Mutation Database
  • Oak Ridge National Laboratory CFTR Information
  • CFTR at OMIM (National Center for Biotechnology Information)
  • Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: P13569 (Human Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) at the PDBe-KB.
  • Overview of all the structural information bachelor in the PDB for UniProt: P26361 (Mouse Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) at the PDBe-KB.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis_transmembrane_conductance_regulator

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